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A Comparative Analysis of Mythology Use in the works of Tolkien and James Joyce
Of all human art forms, mythology is perhaps the most ancient. Long before the written word, tales of wonder and of terror were handed down, orally, from father to son. These explained the natural world in ways so marvelous, that thousands of years later, they are still being told and retold; both by fireplaces and in universities ("Webster's New World Dictionary"). James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings at first glance, have scarcely anything in common. One is the story of a man's battle with his own psyche amidst ordinary settings. The other is the tale of a fantastical world in which a rustic character is chosen over all the others and saddled with the burden of saving the earth. However, despite their differences, classical mythology is used in each novel both in the character development and to define the theme.
In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce uses mythology as a vehicle with which to describe his protagonist. Stephen Daedalus is named after the character, Daedalus of Ancient Greek Mythology: the character that, after being exiled from his homeland, flees to Crete, where he is befriended by the king. There he aids the queen with her perverted desire to mate with a bull. When the offspring of this vile coupling is born, it is a man-eating monster, the Minotaur. To restrain the monster that he has helped to create, Daedalus creates the Labyrinth. Soon thereafter, he falls out of favor with the king of Crete and is himself imprisoned. Daedalus, however, has retained his characteristic ingenuity and constructs wings of wax on which he sails away, far from those who would do him harm (Matthews, 49).
Stephen mirrors his mythological namesake in many ways. He too flees from one life of terror, characterized by his school life; to what should have been a haven of safety, his home. Home for Stephen is not, however, all that it should be. Sorely disappointed with himself and society, Stephen flees into the arms of the street and the women he finds there (Restuccia, 11 and Campbell 37). This parallels the making of the Minotaur as the modern day Daedalus, like his ancient counterpart, facilitates the release of sexual perversion, reducing his body to an almost animal state. Next, Stephen, terrified of where this monster might lead him, locks that part of himself in the labyrinthine workings of his own conscience (Culleton, 111).
It is within this conscience that the reader may discover the true nature of the journey that Stephen undertakes, for, while the Daedalus of myth underwent physical dangers, his modern day counterpart fights demons of the spiritual kind. Stephen struggles with the eternal friction and discrepancy between appearance and reality. His search for truth in a lying world is distilled into a discussion of esthetics: he questions the fundamental nature of beauty. "Plato I believe said that beauty is the splendor of truth; I don't think it has meaning, but the true and the beautiful are akin" (Joyce, 208).
Yet, if the true and the beautiful are truly related, how does one explain the different modes and perceptions of beauty? Stephen attempts to explain this using Thomas Aquinas' neat philosophy, of esthetic intellection, "If it is pleasing to the eye it is beautiful" (Joyce, 188). However, while this philosophy is all very well and good when describing material objects, in describing human beauty this mode of thought is rather inadequate, as it can make no distinction between beauty of the body and beauty of the spirit.
In developing a solution to this problem, mythology plays a very important role. Venus, goddess of love and beauty, represents all that is passionate and beautiful to the senses. Artemis, goddess of the moon and the hunt, a sworn virgin, represents all that is austere and intellectual rather that physical. The two are united in a girl that Stephen sees standing in the ocean. She is a representation of the goddess Venus, who was born of the sea, yet she stands, in a ray of moonlight, highly symbolic of the goddess Artemis. Stephen is presented with a symbolic choice between the austere spiritual existence that society demands, and the raw natural yearnings of his own spirit (Schork, 53). He chooses to obey the calling of the "nymph" who opens the "way of beauty to error and glory" (Joyce, 170).
There is an apparent discrepancy between the truth to which Stephen believes beauty is akin and the path of error that the girl's beauty opens to him. Stephen bridges this divide by asserting that society does not accurately define the truth to which he remains faithful. One need only be true to oneself and discover "the mode of life or art in which the soul may express itself in unfettered freedom" (Joyce, 190). Thus, Stephen "spurns the grave clothes of boyhood", also spurning society and quickly becoming a man. Like his mythological predecessor, Stephen's flight is supremely reckless. He finds, however, that his own freedom is worth any sacrifice that he must make to attain it, and flees society on wings of his own construction (Joyce, 170).
Tolkien differs from Joyce in both his purpose and his methods of using mythology. Rather than use mythology to emphasize a philosophy, he sets about to create an etiological mythology (one explaining the origins and traditions of a certain people) for a country that he believes to be without one (Funk and Wagnall's). The history of wars and bloodshed that shaped the English landscape left it almost completely devoid of mythology, as each successive culture destroyed the oral tradition of its predecessor ("Beyond the Movie: The Lord of the Rings").
According to Tom Shippey's philological study of the Lord of the Rings, Tolkien did not view his work as an entirely original undertaking. Rather, he saw it as a piecing together of various mythological characters and aspects from all the archaic peoples of England (de Koster, 89). For this reason, occasional snippets of the novels are directly paralleled by historical or literary pieces of the "real world." Tolkien explains these coincidences by asserting that his mythology is the true story of which the modern world retains only echoes, memories (Carter, 131). To emphasize its mythological basis, the characters in the Lord of the Rings are structured as mythological figures in their own right. Though drawn from classical mythology in their attributes, in character and personality, they stand apart from all other characters. The reader senses comparisons, yet not copies ("Beyond the Movie: The Lord of the Rings").
Aragorn, for example, may be compared to the glorious knightly figures of ancient mythology: He is an epic hero in the classical sense. Although descended from kings, he is early sent to a foster home where the circumstances of his birth are concealed from him until he is old enough to flee those who would have him dead. He lives long on a secret mission in which his identity remains hidden. Finally, he undertakes a quest in which his true identity is gradually revealed, until, with his victory, it bursts forth in its full glory, like the sun bringing fruitfulness and prosperity to all who come near. (Noel, 70-72) In these attributes, Aragorn most closely resembles King Arthur. Gandalf, the wizard, might also be compared to Arthur's Merlin in his influence over the "king." Other possible sources of inspiration for the character include Charlemagne whose gift of healing is similar to that of Aragorn.
The saga of Aragorn's sword, on the other hand, is prefigured most accurately in Norse mythology. In the "Volsunsaga" a sword is thrust into a tree by Odin, it is pulled out by Volsung. After Volsung's death, Sigmund inherits the legendary blade. At the end of Sigmund's last battle, Odin breaks the blade. It is later reforged for Sigurd (Sigmund's son) to slay Fafnir the dragon. Similarly, Narsil -the Blade that was Broken- was forged for Elendil, the Elven king before the first rise of the evil Sauron. It was broken beneath Elendil's weight as he died and was later reforged for Elendil's heir (Issacs, 50).
In many senses, Frodo, the ring bearer, is also similar to traditional epic heroes. His journey, like an epic journey, is both physical and spiritual; however, his epic failing is not the typical sin of hamartia (pride), but rather an overwhelming humility, that displays itself in the form of cowardice. (Carter) The myth to which Frodo's story is most similar is that of Scyld Scefing, ancestor of Beowulf. Both Scyld Scefing and Frodo are orphan children carried across the water and adopted by heroes. Each is burdened with a quest, the accomplishment of which gives him glory far surpassing that of his legendary foster parent. Each is so transformed by his quest that, though he brings prosperity to his homeland, he is unable to benefit from this prosperity.
Like Aragorn, Frodo has his weapon. Sting, the blade that Bilbo won during his great adventure is presented to Frodo. Bilbo thrusts the blade into a beam from which Frodo must pull it in order to accept it. This too is prefigured by Scyld Scefing, who gained his sword by pulling it from a tree. It is also prefigured by the "Volsungsaga" and by the legend of Arthur and his Excalibur (O'Herif). Frodo differs from these heroes in one important characteristic. He does not desire fame or glory. In this respect, he is more similar to Joan of Arc than to any character of mythology. He is a character much out of step with his surroundings, one who accepts the will of the voices within him despite the chasm between their will and his own (Noel, 117-120).
It is in this respect that Tolkien's mythology differs from classical legends. In Tolkien's novels, good does not triumph absolutely. Evil is not absolutely destroyed, and with its destruction comes the destruction of many good and beautiful things (de Koster, 125-127). In Tolkien's Middle Earth, epic characteristics are turned on their ear. His greatest heroes are those who are drawn from simple stock. They have human faults and foibles, yet are blessed with a strong sense of friendship. It is this solidarity as a people that allows them to overcome their fear. Indeed, the Lord of the Rings is the story of conquest, less of the enemy than of self. ("Evil in the Lord of the Rings")
James Joyce and J.R.R. Tolkien use similar means to arrive at opposite conclusions. Joyce believes in individual autonomy, and uses mythology to assert this. Tolkien brands such behavior as pride, and uses mythology to encourage nobility of spirit and self-sacrifice. Each author creates a world peopled with characters that have true spirits, all the deeper and easier to understand because they are rooted in classical mythology. The battles that these characters fight end in victories, however, like the glorious myths on which they are based, it is the journey and not the destination that continues to enthrall the generations.
Works Cited
"Beyond the Movie: The Lord of the Rings". National Geographic.2001. 1/21/02.
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngbeyond/rings/myth.html
Campbell, Joseph. Mythic worlds, Modern Words: On the Art of Jame Joyce.
New York: Harper Collins. 1993.
Carter,Elizabeth. Tolkien: A Look Behind The Lord of the Rings .
New York: Ballantine.1969.
Culleton, Claire A. Names and Naming in JOYCE.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 1994
De Koster, Katie (ed). Readings on Tolkien.
San Diego: Greenhaven Press Inc. 2002.
"Evil in the Lord of the Rings." Dr. Lehre. 2002. 1/19/02.
Funk and Wagnalls Standard Reference Encyclopedia. Volume 17
"Mythology".
United States: Wilfred Funk Inc. 1966.
Issacs, Neil D. Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives.
Kentucky: University Press.1981.
Joyce,James. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
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Matthews, Rodney. The Usborne Book of Greek and Norse Legends.
London: Usborne House. 1987.
Noel, Ruth S. The Mythology of Middle Earth.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
Restuccia, Frances L. Joyce and the Law of the Father.
New Haven: Yale University Press. 1989.
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